Neuralgia due to sympathectomy

Depending on the skill of the surgeon and difficulty encountered performing various intraoperative maneuvers, the incidence of complications following sympathectomy should be the same as that following any other extraperitoneal or extrapleural operation. However, a frequent complication following sympathectomy, and one which is apparently unrelated to operative technique, is that of postsympathectomy neuralgia.

This neuralgia is characterized by aching thigh pain after lumbar sympathectomy or aching shoulder and arm pain after cervical sympathectomy. The pain is intense in severity, sudden in onset and disappearance, and not related to any major neurologic manifestations.

Recently we have reviewed the files of the Vascular Surgical Service at the West Roxbury Veteran's Hospital and the literature on this condition. This report is a presentation of our findings.

Incidence Pain following sympathectomy has been described as "an all too common complaint."⁸ Reports have varied in incidence from 2.1% to "practically every case."

http://archsurg.jamanetwork.com/article.aspx?articleid=560162

Autonomic neuropathy in the skin following sympathectomy

In diabetics with the anhidrotic syndrome, autonomic nerve fibres were studied in skin biopsies using argentic techniques and light microscopy. The Minor test was used to differentiate normal from anhidrotic skin areas. In the anhidrotic areas, histology of the nerve fibres showed beading, spindle-shaped thickening and fragmentation adjacent to the sweat glands. These changes were similar to those observed in two patients who had previously undergone lumbar sympathectomy. No abnormalities of the sympathetic nerve endings could be found in biopsies taken from normal areas of the forearm of the same patients. We conclude that the diabetic anhidrotic syndrome, a form of diabetic autonomic neuropathy, is due to a lesion of the sympathetic nerve supply to the skin.

I. Faerman¹, E. Faccio³, I. Calb², J. Razumny¹, N. Franco², A. Dominguez² and H. A. Podestá¹

Diabetologia

Volume 22, Number 2 / February, 1982

Endoscopic sympathectomy is not minimally invasive

The term ‘‘minimally invasive surgery’’ was initially applied to coelioscopic procedures such as laparoscopic cholecystectomy and hernia repair, thoracoscopic sympathectomy, and arthroscopy, but has since been abandoned, because doing the same operation through a smaller incision is not necessarily less invasive. The term ‘‘minimally invasive parathyroidectomy’’ does not fully convey the nature of the techniques, and, as previously debated in the wider ﬁeld of minimal-access surgery, carries connotations of increased safety that are not necessarily supported by the existing data [12].

Surg Clin N Am 84 (2004) 717–734

F. Fausto Palazzo, MS, FRCS(Gen),
Leigh W. Delbridge, MD, FACS*

Department of Surgery, Royal North Shore Hospital, Sydney 2065, NSW, Australia

Endoscopic thoracic sympathectomy remains a fairly controversial procedure

Studies by ETS surgeons have claimed an initial satisfaction rate around 85-95% with at least 2%-19% regretting the surgery and up to 51% of the patients complaining about decreased quality of life. However, at least one study shows a satisfaction rate as low as 28.6.

Most patients report various adverse reactions as a result of the surgery. And, whilst the results of endoscopic thoracic sympathectomy might appear moderately successful in treating hyperhidrosis, there is a high risk of complications.

Along with the normal side effects of surgery, such as pain, bleeding and bruising, the most frequent post surgical complication is ‘compensatory hyperhidrosis’ – where excessive sweating in seen another part of the body as a result, most commonly the lower back or upper thighs.

There is also the potential surgical complication of a pneumothorax, where air becomes trapped between the lung and the internal chest wall, making breathing difficult and painful. Whilst this can be a life-threatening condition, if not too large it generally resolves over time with out further surgical intervention.

Other fairly common complications of endoscopic thoracic sympathectomy include:

Rhinitis - inflammation of the nose and

Gustatory sweating - sweating on the face and neck after eating food,

Rarer complications of endoscopic thoracic sympathectomy as a result of nerve damage include:

Damage to the phrentic nerve. – Phrentic nerve damage can lead to long term shortness of breath, repair of the nerve during the surgery is also possible in some cases..

Horner’s syndrome, - a condition that causes drooping of the eyelids.

Endoscopic thoracic sympathectomy remains a fairly controversial procedure; with advocates claiming high success rates and minimal complications when performed correctly, whilst opponents report huge variation in post operation satisfaction levels and poor consistency in the surgical procedure as a result of anatomical variations in the sympathetic nerve network between patients and personal preferences between doctors.

http://www.lasertreatmentclinics.co.uk/Hyperhidrosis_Endoscopic_Sympathectomy/

This is how "Australia’s leading source for trustworthy medical information" describes sympathectomy

"Sympathectomy is a procedure that is used to treat neuropathic pain. It interrupts the sympathetic nervous system either temporarily or permanently."

http://www.virtualmedicalcentre.com/medical-dictionary/alpha/s

Australia’s leading source for trustworthy medical information written by health professionals.

Please be aware that we do not give advice on your individual medical condition,
if you want advice please see your treating physician.

progressive hemifacial atrophy following sympathectomy for hyperhidrosis

Some authors consider the disease a variant of mor- phea because the histologic changes are identical to deep scleroderma.2 The possible etiologies include sympathetic denervation, trauma, vascular malformations, immunologic abnormality, heredi- tary disease, or infection by a slow virus.3 To our knowledge, this is the first report of a young patient with a possible association between Parry-Romberg syndrome and thoracoscopic sympathectomy.

Theoretically, thoracoscopic sympathectomy may cause 2 of the aforementioned etiologies of Parry- Romberg syndrome: sympathetic denervation and trauma. Thoracoscopic sympathectomy is a surgical technique for the treatment of palmar hyperhidrosis.

The operation ablates the upper thoracic sympa- thetic nerve ganglions responsible for nerve stimu- lation of the sweat glands of the upper limbs. The most significant complication is Horner’s syn- drome, which results from injury to the stellate sympathetic ganglion.7 In a summary of sympa- thectomies in 67 children and adolescents, compli- cations included Horner’s syndrome in 1 patient (1%) and varying degrees of compensatory sweat- ing in 30 patients (45%).8 Despite the evidence from animal studies that sympathectomy can result in facial atrophy, to our knowledge, there were no previous reports of such an association in humans.

Cutis. 2004;73:343-344, 346.

Crime Inc.: Sweaty Palm Surgery

RSD due to nerve injury

According to the National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke (NINDS), RSD is "a chronic pain condition that is believed to be the result of dysfunction in the central or peripheral nervous systems." According to MedicineNet, RSD involves "irritation and abnormal excitation of nervous tissue, leading to abnormal impulses along nerves that affect blood vessels and skin."

Animal studies indicate that norepinephrine, a catecholamine released from sympathetic nerves, acquires the capacity to activate pain pathways after tissue or nerve injury, resulting in RSD. Another theory suggests that RSD, which follows an injury, is caused by triggering an immune response and symptoms associated with inflammation (redness, warmth, swelling). RSD is not thought to have a single cause, but rather multiple causes producing similar symptoms.

http://arthritis.about.com/od/rsd/a/rsd.htm

Limited sympathectomy does not reduce postoperative compensatory sweating

Endoscopic transthoracic for upper limb hyperhidrosis:

PLOS Medicine: Why Most Published Research Findings Are False

PLOS Medicine: Why Most Published Research Findings Are False: "There is increasing concern that most current published research findings are false. The probability that a research claim is true may depend on study power and bias, the number of other studies on the same question, and, importantly, the ratio of true to no relationships among the relationships probed in each scientific field. In this framework, a research finding is less likely to be true when the studies conducted in a field are smaller; when effect sizes are smaller; when there is a greater number and lesser preselection of tested relationships; where there is greater flexibility in designs, definitions, outcomes, and analytical modes; when there is greater financial and other interest and prejudice; and when more teams are involved in a scientific field in chase of statistical significance. Simulations show that for most study designs and settings, it is more likely for a research claim to be false than true. Moreover, for many current scientific fields, claimed research findings may often be simply accurate measures of the prevailing bias. In this essay, I discuss the implications of these problems for the conduct and interpretation of research."

After sympathectomy in rats there is an increase in osteoclast-mediated bone resorption as well as an increase in the number of osteoclasts on the sympathectomized side

Paper: Osteoclastic Activation In Periapical Lesions After NPY Knockout (IADR/AADR/CADR 87th General Session and Exhibition (April 1-4, 2009)): "After sympathectomy in rats there is an increase in osteoclast-mediated bone resorption as well as an increase in the number of osteoclasts on the sympathectomized side compared to the control. These findings suggest an inhibitory effect of the SNS on bone resorption via osteoclasts. Our objective was to determine if an SNS mediator, neuropeptide Y (NPY), affects osteoclastic activity after pulpal exposure."

Two-stage unilateral versus one-stage bilateral single-port sympathectomy for palmar and axillary hyperhidrosis

Compensatory sweating occurred in 25 (19%) patients of the one-stage group and in 6 (4%) of the two-stage group (P = 0.0001). No patients developed Horner’s syndrome.
CONCLUSIONS: Both two-stage unilateral and one-stage bilateral single-port video-assisted thoracoscopic sympathectomies are effective, safe and minimally invasive procedures. Two-stage unilateral sympathectomy can be performed with a lower occurrence of compensatory sweating, improving permanently the quality of life in patients with palmar and axillary hyperhidrosis.
http://icvts.oxfordjournals.org/content/16/6/834.full.pdf+html

sympathectomy and avoidance learning

PsycNET - Option to Buy: "Chemical sympathectomy and avoidance learning in the rat.
By Di Giusto, E. L.; King, M. G.
Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology, Vol 81(3), Dec 1972, 491-500.
Abstract
Reports results of 5 experiments with male Wistar rats (N = 108). Depletion of peripheral sympathetic noradrenaline induced by administration of 6-hydroxydopamine, ip, led to significant decrements in escape and avoidance responding when the required response was difficult, but not when it was relatively easy to acquire. Results are similar to previous findings obtained with adrenal-demedullated Ss. Findings clarify the role of the sympathetic nervous system in the motivation of behavior elicited by aversive stimulation. Implications for 2-process theory and the "Kamin effect," or "learned helplessness," are discussed. (40 ref.) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)"

Blushing and Facial Blushing Causes, Treatment, Diagnosis

Blushing and Facial Blushing Causes, Treatment, Diagnosis: "The treatment of facial blushing and or facial sweating is a controversial subject. The uncontrolled and embarrassing situation of facial sweating and blushing was thought to be easily treated with ETS. This came about when ETS was done patients with sweaty hands. Among those patients who also suffered from facial blushing and/or facial sweating the results were also successful at reducing facial blushing and/or sweating. However over the years two observations were made when this operation was applied only patients with facial blushing and or facial sweating. Percentage wise these patients developed a higher rate of severe compensatory sweating. Also these patients experienced a higher degree of dissatisfaction due to the side effects. Side effects such as facial flushed feelings, loss of stamina, facial skin sensitivity, increased amount of fatigue and others led Dr. Reisfeld to the decision not to perm ETS when only facial blushing or facial sweating were involved. The clinical experience that was accumulated over the last several years is what has allowed Dr. Reisfeld to reach this assessment."

Hyperhidrosis (excessive sweating). DermNet NZ

Hyperhidrosis (excessive sweating). DermNet NZ: "Localised hyperhidrosis may also be due to:

Stroke
Spinal damage
Peripheral damage
Surgical sympathectomy
Neuropathy
Brain tumour
Chronic anxiety disorder"

Right sympathectomy was associated with a 372% increase in PI (p < 0.0001), and left sympathectomy with a 316% increase in PI

Oximetry-derived perfusion index for intraop... [Ann Thorac Surg. 2005] - PubMed - NCBI: "Baseline oximetric waveforms were adequate in all subjects. Right was associated with a 372% increase in PI (p < 0.0001), and left with a 316% increase in PI (p < 0.029). This occurred as early as 1 minute after transection of the sympathetic chain. The PI in the reference probes as well as the hemodynamics remained constant."

Severity of compensatory sweating after thor... [Ann Thorac Surg. 2004] - PubMed - NCBI

Severity of compensatory sweating after thor... [Ann Thorac Surg. 2004] - PubMed - NCBI: "Compensatory sweating occurred in 89% of patients and was so severe in 35% that they often had to change their clothes during the day. The frequency of compensatory sweating was not significantly different among the three groups, but severity was significantly higher after Th2-4 sympathectomy for axillary hyperhidrosis (p = 0.04). Gustatory sweating occurred in 38% of patients, and 16% of patients regretted the operation.
CONCLUSIONS:
Compensatory and gustatory sweating were remarkably frequent side effects after thoracoscopic sympathectomy for primary hyperhidrosis."

Impaired skin vasomotor reﬂexes have been found in patients with sympathetic dystrophies, dysautomias, post-regional sympathectomy and diabetic neuropathies

Not surprisingly, diminished vasoconstrictor responses, similar to the current ﬁndings, have been found
in patients with sympathetic dystrophies [26], dysautomias [27], post-regional sympathectomy [28] and
diabetic neuropathies [11].

Additionally, there have been a few reports of EM patients beneﬁtting from sympathectomy or neurolitic
irreversible blocks of the lumbar sympathetic ganglia [22,23], while others have found the symptoms of EM to be aggravated by such treatment [24,25], possibly as a result of denervation supersensitivity.
Clinical Science (1999) 96, 507ñ512 (Printed in Great Britain)
Roberta C. LITTLEFORD, Faisel KHAN and Jill J. F. BELCH
University Department of Medicine, Section of Vascular Medicine and Biology, Ninewells Hospital and Medical School,
Dundee DD1 9SY, Scotland, U.K.

sympathectomy interrupts neural messages that ordinarily would travel to many different organs, glands and muscles

Sympathectomy involves dissection of the main sympathetic trunk in the upper thoracic region thus interrupting neural messages that ordinarily would travel to many different organs, glands and muscles. It involves division of adrenergic, cholinergic and sensory fibers which elaborate adrenergic substances during the process of regulating visceral function.
Journal of Applied Sciences Research, 6(6): 659-664, 2010

Vascular sympathetic denervation can lead to degeneration of the smooth muscle of arteries leading to medial arterial calcification and stiffening of the arteries

Sympathetic denervation of the peripheral arterial system may occur quite early in the evolution of neuropathy and has major effects on blood flow and vascular responses and causes structural changes in the arterial wall (Edmonds 2004). Vascular sympathetic denervation can lead to degeneration of the smooth muscle of arteries leading to medial arterial calcification and stiffening of the arteries. This calcification may assume the histological characteristics of bone.

Unilateral lumbar sympathectomy in humans, both in diabetics and non-diabetics, has been show to result in medial wall calcification on the ipsilateral side (Goebel and Fuessl 1983). Unilateral sympathectomy in animals leads to excess deposition of cholesterol on the operated side and the occurrence of cholesterol sclerosis in the rabbit's aorta was accelerated by removal of the coeliac ganglion (Harrison 1938). Furthermore, in animal models, denervation of smooth muscle leads to striking pathological changes, including atrophy of muscle fibres with foci of degeneration (Kerper and Collier 1926). Arterial calcification in initiated within senescent atrophic smooth muscle (Morgan 1980).

Medial arterial calcification in the Pima Indians is significantly associated with an increased prevalence of cardiovascular mortality (Everhart et al 1988). Medial calcification may be important factor in development of peripheral vascular disease, which in diabetes shows a predilection for the distal arteries below the knee and is unexplained. Chantelau reported an association of below knee atherosclerosis to medial arterial calcification (Chantelau et al. 1995).

p. 653

Autonomic Failure: A Textbook of Clinical Disorders of the Autonomic Nervous System[Hardcover]

Christopher J. Mathias (Author), Roger Bannister (Author)

Publisher: Oxford University Press, USA; 5 edition (July 24, 2013)
Language: English
ISBN-10: 0198566344
ISBN-13: 978-0198566342

"Patients report that they feel less anxious in stressful situations. Stage fright is reduced. The results are usually permanent.'"

http://neuro.templehealth.org/content/ETShyperhidrosis.htm

Sympathectomy, (ETS, VATS, ESB and many other names for the same procedure) affects emotional responses, fear responses, arousal, etc. It changes a person's ability to feel and respond to emotions. It changes drive, attention, mobilisation.
Patients sign up for a surgery to treat sweaty hands, and not 'adjustments' to their emotions and personality.

sympathectomy leads to fluctuation of vasoconstriction alternated with vasodilation in an unstable fashion (39). Following sympathectomy the involved extremity shows regional hyper - and hypothermia

"To quote Nashold, referring to sympathectomy, "Ill- advised surgery may tend to magnify the entire symptom complex"(38). Sympathectomy is aimed at achieving vasodilation. The neurovascular instability (vacillation and instability of vasoconstrictive function), leads to fluctuation of vasoconstriction alternated with vasodilation in an unstable fashion (39). Following sympathectomy the involved extremity shows regional hyper - and hypothermia in contrast, the blood flow and skin temperature on the non- sympathectomized side are significantly lower after exposure to a cold environment (39). This phenomenon may explain the reason for spread of CRPS. In the first four weeks after sympathectomy, the Laser Doppler flow study shows an increased of blood flow and hyperthermia in the extremity (40). Then, after four weeks, the skin temperature and vascular perfusion slowly decrease and a high amplitude vasomotor constriction develops reversing any beneficial effect of surgery (39). According to Bonica , "about a dozen patients with reflex sympathetic dystrophy (RSD) in whom I have carried out preoperative diagnostic sympathetic block with complete pain relief, sympathectomy produced either partial or no relief (40)"

Chronic Pain:

Reflex Sympathetic Dystrophy : Prevention and Management

Hooshang Hooshmand

CRC PressINC, 1993 - Medical - 202 pages

we stopped performing sympathectomies in 1994, since we were alarmed by the complication and failure rate

Physical medicine
Russell, Alan L. Patient Care 13.2 (Feb 2002): 19.

Seven cases of enlargement of breast following sympathectomy for hyperhidrosis

The phenomenon of hyperhidrosis is a pathological state caused by unknown stimulus of the sympathetic nervous system. When a variety of conservative treatments have failed, surgery which involves the removal of some ganglia of the cervical sympathetic chain, is the treatment of choice. In the last four years we operated on 253 patients for palmar hyperhidrosis using the transaxillary approach only. Recently, a new side effect of surgery has come to our attention. This phenomenon is enlargement of the breast on the operated side. Our series show seven cases (2.4%) of women operated for palmar hyperhidrosis who manifested this phenomenon, two of them bilaterally. The enlargement of the breast was found usually by the second follow-up visit after operation when, in most cases, the patient mentioned it.Examination of the breast revealed enlargement of a few centimeters which in several patients required a change to a larger brassiere size. In both of our patients who underwent bilateral surgery, the breasts enlarged until they were equal in size. The women then did not complain further.

Enlargement of the Breast--A New Side Effect of Transaxillary Cervical Sympathectomy: Case Report Kott, Itamar;; Hauptman, Eli;; Zelkovsky, Avigdor;; Reiss, Raphael. Vascular and Endovascular Surgery 20.1 (Jan 1986): 50-54.

Sympathectomy significantly alters vascular responses

Vascular responses to warming were studied in hemiplegic patients and after sympathectomy, using venous occlusion plethysmography of foot and leg. Comparisons were made with corresponding age groups. The pattern of response was essentially unchanged in hemiplegic patients, but was altered substantially where sympathetic pathways had been interrupted.

Vasomotor Responses in the Extremities of Subjects with Various Neurologic Lesions

I. Reflex Responses to Warming

http://circ.ahajournals.org/content/15/4/518.abstract

Sympathectomy involves division of adrenergic, cholinergic and sensory fibers which elaborate adrenergic substances during the process of regulating visceral function.

G. SURGICAL SYMPATHECTOMY AND ADRENERGIC FUNCTIONPharmacol Rev March 1966 18:611-618;

Sympathectomy (ETS or ESB) can alleviate social phobia and common fears such as fear of flying, heights, open spaces, or the darkness

Is sympathectomy the new lobotomy?

"ESB may also alleviate social phobia and common fears such as fear of flying, heights, open spaces, or the darkness. In addition, it can be used to decrease trembling of the body, hands, and voice, even stuttering. It may help in alcoholism or drug withdrawal, because these are often linked with social anxiety.  Sympathetic block is a gentle and exact endoscopic procedure. It is performed as day surgery under light anesthesia."

http://www.sympatix.fi/?lang=en

The almost total absence of myelinated and amyelinated fibers following clip removal suggests that clipping method is NOT reversible (as many surgeons claim)

Ten days after clipping, all sympathetic chains displayed evident Wallerian degeneration. Twenty days after clipping, Wallerian degeneration of myelinated fibers was more widespread and also more striking. Thirty days after clipping, a very marked macrophagic reaction was visible, with multiple signs of phagocytosis of myelin debris. By 30 days post operation and 20 days after clip removal, a few residual myelin and amyelinated fibers were visible. These findings suggest that axon regeneration is not possible. CONCLUSIONS There are Wallerian degeneration and axon loss 10 days after clipping. The almost total absence of myelinated and amyelinated fibers following clip removal suggests that there was no nerve regeneration, and that therefore clipping cannot be considered a reversible technique.

Surg Endosc. 2012 May ;26 (5):1258-63 22083329

Intense pain following sympathectomy, reduced inspiratory capacity

Intrapleural analgesia after endoscopic thoracic sympathectomy.

Patrícia Gomes da Silva, Daniele Cristina Cataneo, Fernanda Leite, Erica Nishida Hasimoto, Guilherme Antonio Moreira de Barros

Postgraduate Program in Anesthesiology, Botucatu School of Medicine, UNESP, Bauru, SP, Brazil.

PURPOSE To compare analgesia traditionally used for thoracic sympathectomy to intrapleural ropivacaine injection in two different doses. METHODS Twenty-four patients were divided into three similar groups, and all of them received intravenous dipyrone. Group A received intravenous tramadol and intrapleural injection of saline solution. Group B received intrapleural injection of 0.33% ropivacaine, and Group C 0.5% ropivacaine. The following aspects were analyzed: inspiratory capacity, respiratory rate and pain. Pain was evaluated in the immediate postoperative period by means of the visual analog scale and over a one-week period. RESULTS In Groups A and B, reduced inspiratory capacity was observed in the postoperative period. In the first postoperative 12 hours, only 12.5% of the patients in Groups B and C showed intense pain as compared to 25% in Group A. In the subsequent week, only one patient in Group A showed mild pain while the remainder reported intense pain. In Group B, half of the patients showed intense pain, and in Group C, only one presented intense pain. CONCLUSION Intrapleural analgesia with ropivacaine resulted in less pain in the late postoperative period with better analgesic outcomes in higher doses, providing a better ventilatory pattern.

http://lib.bioinfo.pl/meid:154350/pmid

Brachial plexopathy is another well recognised but not much publicised side-effect of sympathectomy

Brachial plexus dysfunction (brachial plexopathy) is a form of peripheral neuropathy. It occurs when there is damage to the brachial plexus, an area on each side of the neck where nerve roots from the spinal cord split into each arm's nerves.

Damage to the brachial plexus is usually related to direct injury to the nerve, stretching injuries (including birth trauma), pressure from tumors in the area (especially from lung tumors), or damage that results from radiation therapy.

Brachial plexus dysfunction may also be associated with:

Birth defects that put pressure on the neck area
Exposure to toxins, chemicals, or drugs
General anesthesia, used during surgery
Inflammatory conditions, such as those due to a virus or immune system problem

In some cases, no cause can be identified.

Symptoms

Numbness of the shoulder, arm, or hand
Shoulder pain
Tingling, burning, pain, or abnormal sensations (location depends on the area injured)
Weakness of the shoulder, arm, hand, or wrist

http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/001418.htm

cardiovascular effects, tremulousness and sweating produced by thyroid hormones can be reduced or abolished by sympathectomy

Although, plasma catecholamine levels are normal in hyperthyroidism, the cardiovascular effects, tremulousness and sweating produced by thyroid hormones can be reduced or abolished by sympathectomy. (p. 133)

Introduction To Endocrinology

ENDOCRINOLOGY CHANDRA S. NEGI

PHI Learning Pvt. Ltd., 2009 - Endocrinology - 455 pages

Trouble in the Gap: A Bioethical and Sociological Analysis of Informed Consent for High-Risk Medical Procedures - Springer

Trouble in the Gap: A Bioethical and Sociological Analysis of Informed Consent for High-Risk Medical Procedures - Springer: "we argue that “informed” consent is a process that is usually incomplete, despite trappings and assumptions that help to create the illusion of completeness."

after sympathectomy the extremity will be more apt to have disturbance of circulation and is left unprotected from fluctuation in circulation

1. Sympathectomy is analogous to the act of killing the messenger. The sympathetic nervous system has the critical job of properly controlling and preserving the circulation in different parts of the body, especially in the extremities. By paralyzing the system, the extremity will be more apt to have disturbance of circulation and is left unprotected from fluctuation in circulation.

Sympathectomy is similar to permanently removing the central heat and air-conditioning system and never replacing it because of malfunction.

Sympathectomy permanently damages the temperature regulatory system. The reason sympathectomy does not cause side effects other than ineffective control of pain as well as impotence and orthostatic hypotension is because it is invariably partial and incomplete.H. Hooshmand, M.D.: Chronic Pain

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9780849386671

Chronic Pain: Reflex Sympathetic Dystrophy Prevention and Management

Hooshang Hooshmand

ISBN 10: 0849386675 / 0-8493-8667-5

ISBN 13: 9780849386671

Publisher: CRC Pr I Llc

Publication Date: 1993

Binding: Hardcover

Bradycardia might occur secondary to unopposed vagal tone from a high sympathectomy

Bradycardia might occur secondary to unopposed vagal tone from a high sympathectomy, blockade of the cardio-accelerator fibers (T1-T4), and the Bezold-Jarisch reflex (slowing of the heart rate secondary to decreased venous return). Patients with underlying increased vagal tone (children and adults with resting heart rates < 60) are at an increased risk.

Anesthesia Secrets, 4th Edition by James Duke,

Elsevier Health Sciences, 16/03/2010 - 574 pages

Patients complain of emotional blunting following endoscopic sympathectomy for hyperhidrosis, blushing

Hohmann, G.W. : The effect of dysfunction of the autonomic nervous system on experienced feelings and emotions

Paper read at Conference on Emotions and Feelings at New School for Social Research, New York, Oct 1962.

Sherrington, C.S.: Experiments on the value of vascular and visceral factors for the genesis of emotion

Proc. Roy.Soc., 1900, 66, 390-403

Wenger, M.A.: Emotion as visceral action: an extension of Lange's theory. In Reymert, M.L., Feelings and emotions: the Moosehart ymposium, New York: McGraw-Hill, 1950. Pp.3-10.

Wynne, L.C., and Solomon, R.L.: Traumatic avoidance learning: acquisition and extinction in dogs deprived of normal peripheral autonomic function.

Genet. psychol. Monogr., 1955, 52, 241-84

Landis, C., and Hunt, W. A. Adrenalin and emotion.

Psychol. Rev., 1932, 39, 467-85.

Schachter, S., and Wheeler, L.: Epinephrine, chlorpromazine, and amusement.

J. of abnorm. soc. Psychol., 1962, 65, 121-28.

It has been shown in animals that sympathectomy of one side of the body leads to an increase in the development of tumors on the denervated side

Coujard R, Heitz F. Cancerologic: Production de tumeurs malignes consecutives a des lesions des fibres sympathiques du nerf sciatique chez le Cobaye. C R Acad Sci 1957; 244: 409-411.

Besedovsky H, DelRey A, Sorkin E, DaPrada M, Keller H. Immunoregulation mediated by the sympathetic nervous system. Cellular Immun 1979; 48:346-355.

Stein-Werblowsky R. The sympathetic nervous system and cancer. Exper Neuro 1974; 42:97-100.

Delrey A, Besedovsky H, Sorkin E, DaPrada M, Arrenbrecht S. Immunoregulation mediated by the sympathetic nervous system, II. Mol Immunol 1981; 63:329-334.

in the absence of autonomic arousal, behavior that appears emotional will not be experienced as emotional

"In the presence of a barking dog, for example, the sympathectomized cats manifested almost all of the signs of feline rage. Finally, Cannon notes the report of Dana (1921) that a patient with a spinal-cord lesion and almost totally without visceral sensation still manifested emotionality.
For either the Jamesian or the present formulation such data are crucial, since both views demand visceral arousal as a necessary condition for emotional arousal. When faced with this evidence, James's defenders (e.g., Wenger, 1950; Mandler, 1962) have consistently made the point that the apparently emotional behavior manifested by sympathectomizied animals and men is well-learned behavior, acquired long before sympathectomy. There is a dual implication in this position: first, that sympathetic arousal facilitates the acquisition of emotional behavior, and second, that sympathectomized subjects act but do not feel emotional. There is a small but growing evidence supporting these contentions. Wynne and Solomon (1955) have demonstrated that sympathectomized dogs acquire an avoidance response considerably more slowly than control dogs. Further, on extinction trials most of their 13 sympathectomized animals extinguished quickly, whereas not a single one of the 30 control dogs gave any indication of extinction over 200 trials. Of particular interest are two dogs who were sympathectomized after they had acquired the avoidance response. On extinction trials these two animals behaved precisely like the control dogs - giving no indication of extinction. Thus, when deprived of visceral innervation, animals are quite slow in acquiring emotionally-linked avoidance responses and in general, quick to extinguish such responses." (p. 163)

"A line of thought stimulated by the Wynne and Solomon (1955) and the Hohmann (1962) studies may indeed be the answer to Cannon's observations that there can be emotional behavior without visceral activity. From the evidence of these studies, it would appear, first, that autonomic arousal greatly facilitates the acquisition of emotional behavior but it is not necessary for its maintenance if the behavior is acquired prior to sympathectomy; and second, that in the absence of autonomic arousal, behavior that appears emotional will not be experienced as emotional." (p. 167)

Psychobiological Approaches to Social Behavior

P. Herbert Leiderman, David Shapiro, Harvard Medical School. Dept. of Psychiatry, United States. Office of Naval Research - 1964 - 203 pages

Recurrent hyperhidrosis is another potential side effect from hyperhidrosis surgery

The Society of Thoracic Surgeons Expert Consensus for the Surgical Treatment of Hyperhidrosis -- Cerfolio et al. 91 (5): 1642 -- The Annals of Thoracic Surgery: "Recurrent hyperhidrosis is another potential side effect from hyperhidrosis surgery. Incidence rates vary considerably and have been described as 0% to 65%"

'via Blog this'

The Society of Thoracic Surgeons Expert Consensus for the Surgical Treatment of Hyperhidrosis -- Cerfolio et al. 91 (5): 1642 -- The Annals of Thoracic Surgery

The Society of Thoracic Surgeons Expert Consensus for the Surgical Treatment of Hyperhidrosis -- Cerfolio et al. 91 (5): 1642 -- The Annals of Thoracic Surgery: "Because the goal of this procedure is to improve quality of life, complications should be minimal and essentially eliminated. The primary side effects of hyperhidrosis surgery include CH, bradycardia, and Horner's syndrome. It is important for patients to be aware, however, of all of the possible complications that can occur. In general, "the higher the level of blockade on the chain, the higher is the expected regret rate" [26]."

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The vasodilating effect of spinal dorsal column stimulation is mediated by sympathetic nerves - Springer

The vasodilating effect of spinal dorsal column stimulation is mediated by sympathetic nerves - Springer: "Immediately after sympathectomy, the contralateral right arm became increasingly cold and cyanotic and the patient complained of chronic painful coldness and severe cold-intolerance in the right arm. Attempts to pharmacologically vasodilate the arm with felodipine did not affect the local vasoconstriction and pain. Dorsal column stimulation (associated with symmetrical paraesthesia in both arms) induced an immediate and marked (ten-fold) increase in skin blood flow in the right arm (and in the leg), whereas skin blood flow in the left arm remained unaffected. The lack of vasomotor response in the left arm was not due to maximal vasodilatation at rest, since skin blood flow in the left arm showed a normal capacity for axon reflex vasodilatation following antidromic activation of sensory afferents. The results suggest that the marked vasodilatation induced by dorsal column stimulation is mediated by sympathetic vasomotor fibres, via modulation of central neuronal circuits involved in the regulation of skin sympathetic discharge."

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BioEdge: Leveson Inquiry recommends reform of science reporting

BioEdge: Leveson Inquiry recommends reform of science reporting: "Remember patients: don't call something a "cure" that is not a cure."

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catecholamine released from sympathetic nerves, acquires the capacity to activate pain pathways after tissue or nerve injury

What Is Reflex Sympathetic Dystrophy Syndrome or RSD?: "According to the National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke (NINDS), RSD is "a chronic pain condition that is believed to be the result of dysfunction in the central or peripheral nervous systems." According to MedicineNet, RSD involves "irritation and abnormal excitation of nervous tissue, leading to abnormal impulses along nerves that affect blood vessels and skin."

Animal studies indicate that norepinephrine, a catecholamine released from sympathetic nerves, acquires the capacity to activate pain pathways after tissue or nerve injury, resulting in RSD. Another theory suggests that RSD, which follows an injury, is caused by triggering an immune response and symptoms associated with inflammation"

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Transection below T8-T10 is not accompanied by reflex sweating

Reflex sweating in patients with spina... [Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 1977] - PubMed - NCBI: "Sweat glands derive their innervation from the sympathetic nervous system. The spinal sympathetic structures that are located in the intermediolateral areas extend from T1-L2 segments and are under the control of hypothalamic centers. Cord transection abolishes the supraspinal control of sudorimotor function. Since sympathetic innervation does not follow a clear segmental distribution, normal sweating may be preserved at a higher or lower level than skin sensation. Nonthermoregulatory reflex sweating is an indication of unchecked spinal cord facilitation and is precipitated by afferent stimuli from bladder, rectum, and various other sources. It is usually a manifestation of mass reflex or autonomic crisis and occurs particularly in cervical or high thoracic lesions. Transection below T8-T10 is not accompanied by reflex sweating. The phenomenon of thermal relfex sweating is controversial. Although some aspects of nonthermoregulatory reflex sweating are still unclear, proper immediate and continuing preventive management will reduce the incidence of this and other autonomic manifestations. "

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Hemodynamic changes in vertebral and carotid arteries were observed after sympathicotomy for hyperhidrosis

T3 sympathicotomy segment was the most frequent transection done (95.83%), as only ablation (25%) or in association with T4 (62.50%) or with T2 (8.33%). It was observed increase in RI and PI of the common carotid artery (p < 0.05). The DPV of internal carotid artery decreased in both sides (p < 0.05). The SPV and the DPV of the right and left vertebral arteries also increased (p < 0.05). Asymmetric findings were observed so that, arteries of the right side were the most frequently affected.
CONCLUSIONS: Hemodynamic changes in vertebral and carotid arteries were observed after sympathicotomy for PH. SPV was the most often altered parameter, mostly in the right side arteries, meaning significant asymmetric changes in carotid and vertebral vessels. Therefore, the research findings deserve further investigations to observe if they have clinical inferences.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16186983

Limited heart rate variability, autonomic nervous system imbalance implicated in the aetiology of CFS

The Conversation: "The stress-response neural systems of chronic fatigue syndrome (CFS) patients remain on high alert even when they sleep, signalling that it’s not safe to relax, researchers have found.

Researchers also discovered that reduced heart rate variability, or changes in heart beat timing, are the best predictors of cognitive disturbances, such as concentration difficulties commonly reported by CFS sufferers. This adds to the growing body of evidence linking autonomic nervous system imbalance to this disorder.

The findings could lead to new ways to improve cognitive difficulties in people with CFS, which remains a poorly understood condition."

http://www.plosone.org/article/info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0049518

ETS result in limited (reduced) heart rate variability and alters the ANS (sympathetic and parasympathetic balance). This article might provide some insight into the cases where ETS resulted in a variety of unwelcome and detrimental side-effects, including fatigue, altered cognitive function ('brain fog'), etc.

No compensatory sweating after botulinum toxin treatment of palmar hyperhidrosis

No compensatory sweating after botulinum toxin... [Br J Dermatol. 2005] - PubMed - NCBI: "Recordings were made at 16 skin areas and compared with subjective estimates of sweating.
RESULTS:
Following treatment, palmar evaporation decreased markedly and then returned slowly towards pretreatment values, but was still significantly reduced 6 months after treatment. No significant increase of sweating was found after treatment in any nontreated skin area.
CONCLUSIONS:
Successful treatment of palmar hyperhidrosis with botulinum toxin does not evoke compensatory hyperhidrosis in nontreated skin territories."

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not exposing patients to the risk of experiencing the side effects of sympathectomy

The use of oxybutynin for treating ... [An Bras Dermatol. 2011 May-Jun] - PubMed - NCBI: "Treatment of facial hyperhidrosis with oxybutynin is a good alternative to sympathectomy, since it presents good results and improves quality of life, in addition to not exposing patients to the risk of experiencing the side effects of sympathectomy."

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rates and characteristics of the paresthesia following needlescopic VATS are similar to those observed after conventional VATS

Incidence of chest wall paresthesia ... [Eur J Cardiothorac Surg. 2005] - PubMed - NCBI: "Paresthetic discomfort distinguishable from wound pain was described by 17 patients (50.0%). The most common descriptions were of 'bloating' (41.2%), 'pins and needles' (35.3%), or 'numbness' (23.5%) in the chest wall. The paresthesia resolved in less than two months in 12 patients (70.6%), but was still felt for over 12 months in three patients (17.6%). Post-operative paresthesia and pain did not impact on patient satisfaction with the surgery, whereas compensatory hyperhidrosis in 24 patients (70.6%) did (P=0.001). The rates and characteristics of the paresthesia following needlescopic VATS are similar to those observed after conventional VATS."

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Botulinum toxin type A should be PBS listed for treatment of palmar hyperhidrosis | Medical Journal of Australia

Botulinum toxin type A should be PBS listed for treatment of palmar hyperhidrosis | Medical Journal of Australia:

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Nerve injury can result in chronic pain - sympathectomy is a surgical nerve injury

Blocking sympathetic function, whether by surgical sympathectomy, systemic phentol- amine, or systemic guanethidine, relieves partial nerve injury-induced neuropathic pain in laboratory animal models as well as humans (8, 35, 146, 239, 278). Indeed, sympathectomy does not just relieve pathological pain in the body region ipsilateral to the CRPS-initiating event; rather, it also relieves pain arising from anatomically impossible mirror-image sites, that is, the identical body region contralateral to the initiating event (278). Thus sympathetectomy must somehow quiet the contralateral spread of spinal cord hyperexcitability underlying mirror- image pain.

Alterations in sympathetic fibers rapidly follow pe- ripheral nerve injury. This occurs as sprouting of sympa- thetic fibers, creating aberrant communication pathways from the new sympathetic terminals to sensory neurons (35). Sympathetic sprouting has been documented in the region of peripheral terminal fields of sensory neurons (262), at the site of nerve trauma (57), and within the dorsal root ganglia (DRG) containing cell bodies of sen- sory neurons (248, 343). Each of these sites develops spontaneous activity and sensitivity for catecholamines and sympathetic activation (8, 53).

The clearest evidence that immune activation partic- ipates in sympathetic sprouting comes from studies of the DRG. DRG cells receive signals that peripheral nerve injury has occurred via retrograde axonal transport from the trauma site. These retrogradely transported signals trigger sympathetic nerve sprouting into DRG (205, 308). As a result of nerve damage-induced retrogradely trans- ported signals, glial cells within the DRG (called satellite cells) proliferate (248) and become activated (343); mac- rophages are recruited to the DRG as well (63, 176). In turn, the activated satellite glial cells (and, presumably, the macrophages) release proinflammatory cytokines and a variety of growth factors into the extracellular fluid of the DRG (206, 246–248, 258, 277, 308, 358). These sub- stances stimulate and direct the growth of sympathetic fibers, which form basket-like terminals around the satel- lite cells that, in turn, surround neuronal cell bodies (247, 248, 343). For discussion of satellite cell functions, see section IIIA.

LINDA R. WATKINS AND STEVEN F. MAIER

Department of Psychology and the Center for Neuroscience, University of Colorado at Boulder, Boulder, Colorado

Physiol Rev

82: 981–1011, 2002; 10.1152/physrev.00011.2002.

A randomized placebo-controlled trial of oxybuty... [J Vasc Surg. 2012] - PubMed - NCBI

A randomized placebo-controlled trial of oxybuty... [J Vasc Surg. 2012] - PubMed - NCBI: "Palmar and axillary hyperhidrosis improved in >70% of the patients, and 47.8% of those presented great improvement. Plantar hyperhidrosis improved in >90% of the patients. Most patients (65.2%) showed improvements in their quality of life. The side effects were minor, with dry mouth being the most frequent (47.8%).
CONCLUSIONS:
Treatment of palmar and axillary hyperhidrosis with oxybutynin is a good initial alternative for treatment

bilateral sympathectomy may cause bowel, bladder, or sexual dysfunction

If regional sympathetic blockade provides relief, surgical sympathectomy can be considered. Initial pain relief may be significant, but symptoms tend to recur over the next 2 to 5 years.^[53] This is believed to occur owing to incomplete surgical removal of all sympathetic innervation to the extremity. Collateral reinnervation can occur, but bilateral sympathectomy may cause bowel, bladder, or sexual dysfunction.^[14]

It is possible to disrupt the sympathetic chain ganglion by treatments other than surgery. Ablation with radiofrequency devices and caustic chemicals (such as alcohol) have been described, but the region of necrosis may expand beyond the ganglion and long-term results are unknown.[59,][69] As such, surgical sympathectomy is considered strictly as a last resort.

Knee Disorders: Surgery, Rehabilitation, Clinical Outcomes By Frank R. Noyes, MD

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sympathectomy interrupts neural messages to many different organs, glands and muscles

sympathectomy affects the heart, sweating, and circulation

heart rate was significantly reduced at rest (14%), at sub-maximal exercise (12.3%), and at peak exercise (5.7%), together with a significant increase in oxygen pulse (11.8, 12.7, and 7.8%, respectively). The rate pressure product (RPP) was also significantly reduced following the surgical procedure at all three study stages, while all other physiological variables measured remained unchanged. It is suggested that thoracic-sympathetic denervation affects the heart, sweating, and circulation of the respective denervated region

Eur J Appl Physiol. 2008 Sep;104(1):79-86. Epub 2008 Jun 10.

cell body reorganization in the spinal cord after sympathectomy

The amount of compensatory sweating depends on the patient, the damage that the white rami communicans incurs, and the amount of cell body reorganization in the spinal cord after surgery.
Other potential complications include inadequate resection of the ganglia, gustatory sweating, pneumothorax, cardiac dysfunction, post-operative pain, and finally Horner’s syndrome secondary to resection of the stellate ganglion.
www.ubcmj.com/pdf/ubcmj_2_1_2010_24-29.pdf

After severing the cervical sympathetic trunk, the cells of the cervical sympathetic ganglion undergo transneuronic degeneration
After severing the sympathetic trunk, the cells of its origin undergo complete disintegration within a year.
http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1439-0442.1967.tb00255.x/abstract

Acquired cardiovascular disease following Sympathectomy

We found statistically significant differences (P < .05) in both time and frequency domains. Parameters that evaluate global cardiac autonomic activity (total power, SD of normal R-R intervals, SD of average normal R-R intervals) and vagal activity (rhythm corresponding to percentage of normal R-R intervals with cycle greater than 50 ms relative to previous interval, square root of mean squared differences of successive normal R-R intervals, high-frequency power, high-frequency power in normalized units) were statistically significantly increased after sympathectomy. Low-frequency power in normalized units, reflecting sympathetic activity, was statistically significantly decreased after sympathectomy. Low-/high-frequency power ratio also showed a significant decrease, indicating relative decrease in sympathetic activity and increase in vagal activity.

The Journal of Thoracic and Cardiovascular Surgery
Volume 137, Issue 3, March 2009, Pages 664-669

decreased conditioning-related activity in insula and amygdala after autonomic denervation

The degree to which perceptual awareness of threat stimuli and bodily states of arousal modulates neural activity associated with fear conditioning is unknown. We used functional magnetic neuroimaging (fMRI) to study healthy subjects and patients with peripheral autonomic denervation to examine how the expression of conditioning-related activity is modulated by stimulus awareness and autonomic arousal. In controls, enhanced amygdala activity was evident during conditioning to both "seen" (unmasked) and "unseen" (backward masked) stimuli, whereas insula activity was modulated by perceptual awareness of a threat stimulus. Absent peripheral autonomic arousal, in patients with autonomic denervation, was associated with decreased conditioning-related activity in insula and amygdala. The findings indicate that the expression of conditioning-related neural activity is modulated by both awareness and representations of bodily states of autonomic arousal.

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11856537

LIMITED SYMPATHECTOMY DOES NOT REDUCE SEVERITY OF SIDE-EFFECTS

On univariate and multivariate analysis, the extent of denervation was not associated with the occurrence or the severity of compensatory sweating.

Compensatory sweating and temporary relief/recurrence were equally considered to be the main causes of dissatisfaction. CONCLUSION: Compensatory sweating was the most common long-term complication of thoracodorsal sympathectomy for primary hyperhidrosis. Its incidence and severity were not associated with the extent of sympathectomy.

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12514588

Muliptle organ failure as a consequence of elective sympathectomy

In the post-sympathectomy patient, the abnormalsympathetic skin response may lead to peripheral vascular failureor the reduced cardiac chronotropic response may impair thebody’s capacity to compensate for shock. These may havecontributed to the rapid development of shock and severe multipleorgan dysfunction syndrome in this patient.
He had multiple organ dysfunction syndrome develop, with severerenal and hepatic failure, grade II hepatic encephalopathy,and disseminated intravascular coagulation. He responded remarkablywell to aggressive supportive measures including forced alkalinediuresis, and he was eventually discharged home after 1 month. The patient was previously a healthy, physically fit, nonsmoker.He worked as a body building trainer and led an active, sportylifestyle. The only significant medical history was that hehad received thoracic sympathectomy for axillary hyperhidrosis4 years ago at another hospital.

http://ats.ctsnetjournals.org/cgi/content/full/84/3/1025

Hemodynamic changes in vertebral and carotid arteries were observed after sympathicotomy for PH

Atelectasis is a common pulmonary complication following thoracic and upper abdominal procedures

General anesthesia and surgical manipulation lead to atelectasis by causing diaphragmatic dysfunction and diminished surfactant activity. The atelectasis is typically basilar and segmental in distribution. After induction of anesthesia, atelectasis increases from 1 to 11% of total lung volume. End-expiratory lung volume is also found to be decreased.

Postoperative atelectasis is extremely common. Lobar atelectasis is also common. The incidence and prevalence of this disorder are not well documented.

http://emedicine.medscape.com/article/296468-overview#a0104

Atelectasis occurs regularly after induction of general anesthesia, persists postoperatively, and may contribute to significant postoperative morbidity and additional health care costs. Laparoscopic surgery has been reported to be associated with an increased incidence of postoperative atelectasis.

Anesth Analg 2009; 109:1511-1516

RESPONSE TO SYMPATHETIC BLOCKADE DEPENDS ON THE DEGREE OF SYMPATHETIC TONE BEFORE THE BLOCK

Denervation of preganglionic cardiac accelerator fibres leaving the cord at T1-T5 results in minimal vasodilatory consequences. Changes however in heart rate, left ventricular function and myocardial oxygen demand may occur due to high thoracic epidural blockade and are discussed below.

The major determinant of heart rate is the balance between sympathetic and parasympathetic systems with the latter predominating. A high thoracic epidural anaesthesia (TEA) covering the cardiac segments (T1-T4) produces small but significant reductions in heart rate4-8. During cardiac sympathetic denervation, parasympathetic cardiovascular responses, including those involved in baroreflexes, may dominate.

Individual cardiovascular response to different levels of sympathetic blockade varies widely, depending on the degree of sympathetic tone before the block.
Anaesth Intensive Care 2000; 28: 620-635
B. T. VEERING*, M. J. COUSINS†
Department of Anesthesiology, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, The Netherlands and Department of Anaesthesia and
Pain Management, University of Sydney, Royal North Shore Hospital, Sydney, New South Wales

Cell body reorganization in the spinal cord after elective surgery to treat sweaty palms

The amount of compensatory sweating depends on the patient, the damage that the white rami communicans incurs, and the amount of cell body reorganization in the spinal cord after surgery.
Other potential complications include inadequate resection of the ganglia, gustatory sweating, pneumothorax, cardiac dysfunction, post-operative pain, and finally Horner’s syndrome secondary to resection of the stellate ganglion.
www.ubcmj.com/pdf/ubcmj_2_1_2010_24-29.pdf

After severing the cervical sympathetic trunk, the cells of the cervical sympathetic ganglion undergo transneuronic degeneration
After severing the sympathetic trunk, the cells of its origin undergo complete disintegration within a year.http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1439-0442.1967.tb00255.x/abstract

cross-inhibitory control of various afferent in the spinal cord

In conclusion, our results suggest that cross-inhibitory control by various afferents in the spinal cord may exist in the feet as well as in the contralateral hand. The release of cross-inhibitory control by T3 sympathicotomy results in vasoconstriction and a decrease of skin temperature on the contralateral hand and the feet.

The basic neuronal network for this reciprocal organization is probably located in the spinal level (15). Therefore, the reduction in the contralateral skin temperature may be explained by cross-inhibitory control of various afferent in the spinal cord.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2722005/

Contralateral temperature changes of the finger surface during video endoscopic sympathectomy for palmar hyperhidrosis
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8832515

Denervation supersensitivity of alpha receptors following sympathecomy

There is, however, considerable risk of developing a post-sympathectomy pain syndrome that may be the result of a denervation supersensitivity of alpha receptors.
www.mc.vanderbilt.edu/.../Complex%20Regional%20Pain%20Syndrome-1...

Paradoxically it has been suggested that in some cases there may be abnormal vasoconstriction rather than the expected vasodilatation after sympathectomy.
ats.ctsnetjournals.org/cgi/content/full/84

Receptor hypersensitivity is a common problem

Because of their size and location, injuries to the sympathetic ganglia or chain is rarely indicated or performed. Receptor hypersensitivity is a common problem after significant sympathetic injury, including clammy hands, erythema, and allodynia. When sympathetic nerves regenerate, they may establish aberrant connections to sensory receptors, muscles, or other sympathetics receptors; this may lead to an over-response or abnormal response.
http://wiki.cns.org/wiki/index.php/Injury,_Sympathetic_Nerve

the muscles that are supplied by these nerves shorten and tighten

This now well-established but generally under-appreciated principle of physiology is aptly known as 'Cannon's Law of Denervation Supersensitivity'. It describes the wide ranging effects of the complete loss of nerve inputs to a variety of bodily structures under experimental conditions. One of the many responses to nerves that are sick or dysfunctional (now termed Disuse Supersensitivity) is that the muscles that are supplied by these nerves shorten and tighten (due to the supersensitivity of both the muscle's specialized stretch receptors and motor nerve-muscle junctions), resulting not only in muscle spasm and stiffness which limit flexibility, but a whole sequence of pain compounding reactions. The two earliest are that localized taut bands of muscle fibers begin to compress the small specialized pain sensing (and now extra-sensitive) nerve fibers within the muscle (known as myofascial tender or trigger points) causing type 1 pain, and the compressed muscles do not allow proper blood flow in, or waste products to be removed. This leads to a build up of lactic acid, which further enhances the perception of pain through type 2 pain mechanisms. Continued and prolonged muscle shortening or contracture gradually leads to increased mechanical tension on the muscle's tendonous attachments to bone, causing all of the various tendonitis (types 1 & 2 pain) syndromes throughout the body. The end result is a truly vicious snowballing cycle of pain, with the muscle shortening further increasing pressure on the nerves.

www.northwestims.com/faq-4.html

Cannon's law of denervation tells us that if a post-ganglionic neurone has it's pre-ganglionic input removed, then it will become super-sensitive to the normal neurotransmitters that mediate that pre-ganglionic input. There is a variety of reasons for this, including up-regulation of receptors for the neurotransmitter(s), post-receptor effects, and impaired removal of neurotransmitters from the synapse

www.anaesthetist.com/anaes/patient/ans/

Most authors do not describe clinically significant capsular adhesions as a predominant finding in the chronic phase of this condition. Instead, pathologic data confirm an active process of hyperplastic fibroplasia and excessive type III collagen secretion that lead to soft-tissue contractures of the aforementioned structures (ie, the coracohumeral ligament, soft tissues of rotator interval, the subscapularis muscle, the subacromial bursae). However, these findings were observed in surgical patients who had severe and late-phase disease and cannot be applied to early phases of the disease.

From the chromosomal, cytochemical, and histologic points of view, the soft-tissue contractures are identical to those seen in a Dupuytren contracture of the hand. These contractures result in the classic progressive loss of ROM of the glenohumeral joint, which affects external rotation and abduction, then flexion, adduction, and extension (in descending order of severity). Despite these histopathologic similarities, the favorable and regressive outcome of adhesive capsulitis differs from the unfavorable and progressive outcome of Dupuytren disease.

http://emedicine.medscape.com/article/326828-overview#a0104

slowing of the heart rate usually occurs on the second to fourth day after sympathectomy

The rate fell to a level between 40 and 6o per minute, the maximal slowing usually occurring on the second to fourth day after operation. Consistent slowing of the rate was not observed after a unilateral thoracic sympathectomy of either side. While there was some recovery from the maximum bradycardia with the passage of time in most patients, relatively slow resting cardiac rates and failure of tachycardia to develop with postural hypotension or exercise persisted in all patients.

Skoog's12 work has shown that there are marked differences in the number and precise location of the accessory ganglion cells in the cervical region in different patients and on the two sides in the same patient.
Annals of Surgery, 1949 October, Volume 130 Number 4

These gustatory phenomena were quite different from physiologic gustatory sweating

In a series of 100 bilateral upper dorsal sympathectomiesperformed for palmar hyperhidrosis, gustatory sweating and othergustatory phenomena were reported by 68 of 93 patients (73%),followed up for an average of 11/2 years. These gustatory phenomenawere quite different from physiologic gustatory sweating: awide range of gustatory stimuli caused a variety of phenomenain varied locations. There was a negative correlation betweenthe incidence of these phenomena and the occurrence of Horner'ssyndrome after sympathectomy. Analysis of our observations,and of clinical and experimental work of others, leads to theconclusion that gustatory phenomena after upper dorsal sympathectomyare the result of preganglionic sympathetic regeneration orcollateral sprouting with aberrant synapses in the superiorcervical ganglion.

http://archneur.ama-assn.org/cgi/content/abstract/34/10/619

Autonomic dysequilibrium (local sympathectomy) leading to obesity

A similar reduction of fat mobilization from fat depots occurs after VMH lesions, as after local sympathectomy, suggesting that the sympathetic pathway to the adipose tissue runs through the VMH.
Bray and York hypothesize that the change in energy balance in animals after VMH lesions is a result of autonomic dysequilibrium. The sympathetic outflow is reduced and the parasympathetic outflow increased. This shift in balance results in hyperinsulinemia and altered metabolic pathways leading to obesity. During the digestion and metabolism of a meal, the autonomic nervous system provides important (but not sole) feedback control on satiety.

The Nervous System and Adipose Tissue, By Katharine Dalziel, MD, MBBS, MRCP
Clinics in Dermatology
October-December 1989, Volume 7, Number 4, pages 62-77

our ignorance of the mechanisms of primary hyperhidrosis and of the effect of sympathetic ablation

causes of autonomic dysfunction - sympathectomy

The finger wrinkling response is abolished by upper thoracic sympathectomy. The test is also abnormal in some patients with diabetic autonomic dysfunction, the Guillan-Barre syndrome and other peripheral sympathetic dysfunction in limbs. (p.46)

Other causes of autonomic dysfunction without neurological signs include medications, acute autonomic failure, endocrine disease, surgical sympathectomy . (p.100)

Disorders of the Autonomic Nervous System

By David Robertson, Italo Biaggioni

Edition: illustrated

Published by Informa Health Care, 1995

ISBN 3718651467, 9783718651467

All patients except one suffered from compensatory sweating

Complications in patients with palmar hyperhidrosis treated with transthoracic endoscopicsympathectomy.

Neurosurgery. 1997 Jul ;41 (1):110-3; discussion 113-5 9218302

OBJECTIVE: To assess the complications in a group of patients with palmar hyperhidrosis treated with transthoracic endoscopic sympathectomy. The extraordinarily high incidence of postoperative compensatory hyperhidrosis in our series is stressed and explained. METHODS: The retrospective study included chart reviews and outpatient assessments. Seventy-two patients underwent T2 or T2-T3 endoscopic sympathectomy for primary palmar hyperhidrosis. Patients' hyperhidrosis severity, precipitating factors, postoperative complications, surgical results, and satisfaction were assessed. Severity of palmar hyperhidrosis and compensatory hyperhidrosis was classified by two grading scales. RESULTS: The success rate ofsympathectomy was 93%. All patients except one suffered from compensatory sweating,which was the main cause of patients' dissatisfaction postoperatively. Seventeen percent of the patients (12 of 72 patients) experienced new symptoms of gustatory sweating (facial sweating associated with eating). Twenty-one patients experienced other complications, including pneumothorax, Horner's syndrome,nasal obstruction, and intercostal neuralgia.

'Emotional' sweating regulated by neocortex and limbic cortex

Careful observations showed that the forearm sweating responded diversely to various mental stimuli, unlike the palmar sweating whose response was always an increase. Mental arithmetic, mental testing and physical exercise caused an immediate increase in the palmar sweating but often elicited a transient decrease in the forearm sweating, whereas pain, noise, and emotional stimuli consistently provoked an increase of sweating on the forearm as well as on the palm. These observations suggest that the activities of higher centers, presumably involving neocortex and limbic cortex, exert various influences on the central mechanisms of palmar and generalized sweating.
Jpn J Physiol. 1975;25(4):525-36.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1206808

hyperhidrosis is not related with social phobia or personality disorder

The total reward dependence and persistence scores were significantly higher in hyperhidrosis patients. The fear of uncertainty in the harm avoidance scale was found to be significantly greater in hyperhidrosis patients. Regarding character dimensions, the total score in each of the subscales self-directedness, cooperativeness and self-transcendence was found to be higher in hyperhidrosis patients. Conclusion: The higher scores of all subscales of character dimensions in hyperhidrosis patients suggest that hyperhidrosis is not related with social phobia or personality disorder.

http://www.online.karger.com/ProdukteDB/produkte.asp?Aktion=ShowFulltext&ArtikelNr=99589&Ausgabe=232867&ProduktNr=224164

Permanent thermoregulatory dysfunction after ETS

What you see here is not a result of the surgery gone wrong, this is the inevitable consequence of cutting/clamping the sympathetic chain, independently of skill of the surgeon, experience of the surgeon, T2, or T3, T4, or method used. Once the communication is disrupted, (and it happens with the clamping as well), it will disable the body's thermoregulation and will cause malfunctioning of the sympathetic nervous system. This damage is permanent and irreversible. There has been no controlled clinical trial into the effects of this surgery on humans, but it is still used for many different conditions: like angina pectoris, to lower blood pressure, to treat migraine, to reduce pain in cancer patients, to reduce immuneresponses after skin transplant, to treat various cancers in the oral cavity, and among many: to treat anxiety disorders, schizophrenia, and phobias. The operation will change you for ever. In fact, it was used as a predecessor to lobotomy. Every drug introduced into the market has to go through rigorous testing procedures before approval. This does not apply to surgeries. It is left to the surgeon's to decide whether they offer this sugery or not. As soon as there are 2 docotrs who offer a procedure, it is considered acceptable medical practice. The surgery earns the surgeon an avarege of $ 2000 for a one hour procedure. The institutions set up to follow up on medical procedures failed to this day to investigate and follow up on this procedure. It is truly a medical scandal of this century.

Does the rule of a free market in health care provide protection to the patients?

Australian Review of ETS surgery

"A lack of high quality randomised trial evidence on ETS means that it is difficult to make a judgment on the safety and effectiveness of this technique. There is potentially a number of safety issues associated with this procedure. ASERNIP-s suggests that a full systematic review including all available comparative and case series information, together with clinical inpuut, should be undertaken to provide up-to-date and comprehensive assessment of the safety and effectiveness of ETS." (ASERNIP-s Report No. 71, August 2009)

Australian Review of ETS surgery - 2001

The four case series were not critically appraised because they are prone to bias and have significant methodological problems. These studies represent level IV evidence according to the NHMRC criteria and one should not draw firm conclusions from their findings.

To date, the benefits or side effects associated with endoscopic thoracic sympathectomy for treating facial blushing have not been properly evaluated and reported.

Further research using a well-designed controlled trial is warranted to assess the efficacy of endoscopic thoracic sympathectomy for treating facial blushing.

Centre for Clinical Effectiveness - Monash

Swedish Review

Finnish Review

UK Review of ETS surgery

We did not identify any controlled trials or cohort studies. The
evidence about effectiveness, based on three case series, was
therefore very limited. The main weakness of these studies was their lack of a comparison group and their resulting inability to exclude a placebo response to surgery. In addition, the methods of assessing outcome were poorly described and not validated, and the range of outcomes assessed was limited. The studies provided very limited evidence that sympathectomy improves blushing. Side effects were common.
London: Bazian Ltd (Editors), Wessex Institute for Health Research and Development, University of Southampton 2003: 11

Wiley & Sons, Inc, news release - 2004

"Lifestyle" surgical procedure carries unrecognized risk of complications.”
Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, Inc, British Journal of Surgery, Feb 5, 2004

The authors found that the incidence of hypotension was a function of the level of sympathetic denervation, occurring in 60% of patients with a T7 sympathectomy, and in 100% of patient with a T4 or higher level of sympathectomy.
(p 226)

"Inappropriate" bradycardia (i.e. "normal" HR in face of ↓MAP with sensory level T3-T4)
Peripheral vasodilation should evoke an ↑ HR. But ↓ venous return → ↑vagal tone, so HR remains at preblock rate but is "inappropriately" slow.

Central neuraxial anesthesia-induced sympathectomy leads to peripheral vasodilation, reduced preload, and subsequently decreased cardiac output. The incidence and extent of hypotension depends on the height of the block, the patient's position, and whether appropriate measures were instituted prophylactically to minimize hypotension.

After thoracoscopic sympathectomy for hyperhidrosis, very severe discomfort and hyperhidrosis in the neighboring non-sympathectomized regions occurred with alarming frequency and intensity.
(p.879)

Cousins and Bridenbaugh's Neural Blockade in Clinical Anesthesia and Pain Medicine by Michael J Cousins, Phillip O Bridenbaugh, Daniel B Carr, and Terese T Horlocker

Wolters Kluwer Health
Edition: 4 - 2008

Clinical Anesthesiology By G. Edward Morgan, Maged S. Mikhail, Michael J. Murray
McGraw-Hill, Edition: 3, 2002

“cervical sympathectomy isolates all these sympathetic ganglion cells from the central nervous system and prevents them from responding to reflex or emotional changes in the central nervous system." Cunningham's Manual of Practical Anatomy: Volume III: Head, Neck and Brain, 1986

ETS is a surgical procedure for hand sweating and blushing. This is achieved by cutting the sympathetic chain, resulting in autonomic dysfunction and the inability to sweat on the upper body. But it does more than that.
“cervical sympathectomy isolates all these sympathetic ganglion cells from the central nervous system and prevents them from responding to reflex or emotional changes in the central nervous system."
Cunningham's Manual of Practical Anatomy: Volume lll: Head, Neck and Brain, 1986

disturbed peripheral vascular and heart rate responses after sympathectomy

Denervation supersensitivity leads to Raynaud's Disease

$Denervation supersensitivity leads to Raynaud\$
Cannon and his colleagues showed in the 1930s that section and subsequent degeneration of the sympathetic nerves led to a marked supersensitivity of the sturcture to exogenous catecholamines. The increase in sensitivity ranged from 10-to 100-fold in different tissues, such as the spleen on section of the splenic nerves, or the nictitating membrane on section of the postganglionic cervical sympathetic nerve or the heart on removal of the stellate ganglion. In smooth muscle the increase in sensitivity is mostly explained by the associated loss of neuronal re-uptake of noradrenaline, with only a lesser role for the increase in receptor numbers. Mechanisms of Drug Action on the Nervous System by Ronald W. Ryall, Cambridge University Press, 1989

Changes in Electrophysiology following sympathectomy

Sympathectomised dogs presented significant increases in: basic sinus period, sino-atrial conduction time (SACT), AH and HV intervals of the His bundle electrogram, atrial functional (AFRP) and effective (AERP) refractory periods, atrio-ventricular node functional (AVNFRP) and effective (AVNERP) refractory periods, ventricular functional (VFRP) and effective (EVRP) refractory periods and atrial (AMAP) and ventricular (VMAP) monophasic action potential durations. Corrected sinus recovery time (CSRT) was not affected by chemical sympathectomy. Neither was the atrial ERP/MAP duration ratio. This new form of sympathectomy affects all the levels of the cardiac conduction system. Such results are in accordance with those obtained with surgical sympathectomy or the use of beta-blocking agents.

DIANE GODIN*, CLAUDE GUIMOND{dagger}, RÉGINALD A NADEAU{ddagger} and A ROBERT LEBLANC§

Cardiovascular Research 1982 16(9):524-529;
© 1982 by European Society of Cardiology

Cardiovascular collapse caused by carbon dioxide insufflation during sympathectomy

Carbon dioxide insufflation into the pleural space during one-lung anaesthesia for thoracoscopic surgery is used in some centres to improve surgical access, even though this practice has been associated with well-described cardiovascular compromise. The present report is of a 35-year-old woman undergoing thoracoscopic left dorsal sympathectomy for hyperhidrosis. During one-lung anaesthesia the insufflation of carbon dioxide into the non-ventilated hemithorax for approximately 60 seconds, using a pressure-limited gas inflow, was accompanied by profound bradycardia and hypotension that resolved promptly with the release of the gas.
Australian Society of Anaesthetists 2002

Sympathetic regulation of the cerebral circulation by the carotid chemoreceptor reflex

After bilateral cervical sympathectomy (n = 9), carotid chemoreceptor reflex stimulation induced significantly different (P less than 0.01) effects on cerebral blood flow, which rose by 42 +/- 8%, and cerebral vascular resistance, which did not change.
In "sham" dogs, the repeat response to carotid chemoreceptor stimulation also induced significantly different effects from those in dogs with sympathectomy. Thus, in the conscious dog, stimulation of the carotid chemoreceptor reflex elicits significant sympathetically mediated vasoconstriction in cerebral vessels.
Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol 238: H594-H598, 1980;

Effect of adrenalectomy or sympathectomy on spinal cord blood flow

We conclude that adrenalectomy near-totally ablates the hypothermia-associated increase in RSCBF (regional spinal cord blood flow) measured in intact rats and that abdominal sympathectomy totally ablates it. This evidence complements morphological evidence for adrenergic innervation of the spinal cord vasculature.

Heart and Circulatory Physiology, Vol 260, Issue 3 827-H831, Copyright © 1991 by American Physiological Society

A. Iwai, W. W. Monafo and S. G. Eliasson
Department of Surgery, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri 63110.

Sympathectomy induced adrenal hypertropy

Journal of Hypertension. 17(7):933-940, July 1999.
Qiua, Jingxin 1; Nelsona, Sharon H. 1; Spethb, Robert C. 2; Wanga, Donna H. 1,3

Objective: Previous studies indicate that the adrenal gland plays a compensatory role in the maintenance of blood pressure in chemically sympathectomized rats. However, the mechanisms responsible for compensatory adrenal responses are poorly understood. This study examined the regulation of adrenal growth and type 1A, 1B, and type 2 angiotensin II (Ang II) receptor (AT1A, AT1B and AT2) expression in the adrenal gland induced by sympathectomy.

Denervation supersensitivity leads to Raynaud's Disease

Cervical sympathectomy reduces the heterogeneity of oxygen saturation in small cerebrocortical veins

Sympathectomy significantly reduced this heterogeneity in the anterior cortex through a reduction in the number of low O2 saturation veins (coefficient of variation 11.7%).

H. M. Wei, A. K. Sinha and H. R. Weiss
Department of Anesthesia, University of Medicine and Dentistry of New Jersey, Robert Wood Johnson Medical School, Piscataway 08854-5635.

Informed consent - from the ETS forum

Physicians are required to gain informed consent prior to administering a treatment. Informed consent is gained by providing patients with a full accounting of the risks of the treatment as documented in peer-reviewed, published medical/scientific literature.

Your scenario of surgeons being flummoxed by unhappy patients complaining after surgery doesn't hold water. The rules of professional medical ethics require that the treating physician be well versed in the published literature on the treatments he delivers.

There is a mountain of published research (spanning nearly a century) documenting the adverse effects of sympathectomy. There are numerous studies, for example, showing very high rates of severe side effects and studies showing that satisfaction diminishes substantially over the long term.

It is a doctors job to know this stuff and it is their ethical duty to disclose that information to patients.

So, I see the blame thing as pretty cut and dry. Surgeons perfoming sympathectomies routinely withhold information vital to informed consent. Anyone who does objective comparison between what is documented in medical/scientific literature and what is typically disclosed to prospective ETS patients has no choice but reach this conclusion.

And, to make matters worse, many surgeons use testimonials from a hand-selected group of their happiest patients to advocate the surgery. That practice is considered unethical by all medical professional organizations.

http://etsandreversals.yuku.com/reply/22927/Would-you-do-it-again#reply-22927

'Improved sympathectomy' - is it an oxymoron?

"also it seems like the more bad and negative affects were from 10 to 12 years ago when they had just started performing the surgery.. they must have improved it a lot by now.?"

This procedure has been performed since the 1920's. Yes, the 1920's. In the 1980's they started to do it using "keyhole" surgery which means they don't have to make a big incision. But, the surgery is no different than what they've been doing for the last 70+ years. It's a nerve injury. You can't "improve" they way you inflict a nerve injury. You can't injure the nerve in some "special" way such that the injury suddenly has a different effect on the body.

The functional name for the this surgery is "sympathetic denervation". It's not some super-advanced, modern cure based on recent discoveries in neurophysiology. It's a primitive, destructive procedure. It's a method used on animals for research. It's brute force method...destroy the pathways to the sweat glands over a large region. Unfortunately, it destroys pathways to and from many other organs including the heart and lungs and causes a large number of neuropathological dysfunction. That hasn't changed in the last ten years. It will not and cannot change in the next 1000 years because it will still be a nerve injury 1000 years from now. I'm not making this up. It's a simple fact. Don't let some doctor take advantage of your ignorance
http://etsandreversals.yuku.com/topic/4919/Should-i-have-ETS-surgery#.Tok-TE8YAyk

The courts have become the sole policing body for the medical profession

Major lawsuits, with the major judgments that go with them, may not completely keep negligent physicians from practicing, but they are the one way that currently exists to deter these individuals from practicing their inept brand of medicine. "

Over the years, we have given a lot of thought to why the medical profession adheres to this code of silence. What is it about this profession that causes it to protect its own at the expense of the public?"

Harvey F. Wachsman: Lethal Medicine

Publisher: Henry Holt & Co

Successful lawyer died after procedure to cure blushing

Alan Synnott was the country’s leading solicitor specialising in personal injuries.

He had built up a large and very successful practice, but the 44-year-old father of three suffered from social phobia and facial blushing.

The blushing was interfering with his ability to speak in public and to run his office and deal with staff.

He was referred to a surgeon for an operation to stop the blushing but, during the operation, a vein and artery were damaged and massive bleeding occurred.

Yesterday his grieving widow, Eleanor Synnott, settled her action for damages for €5m.

http://www.aclsolicitors.ie/news/5m_payout_to_family_after_fatal_operation/